Dental Care of Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Keywords:
autism, children, dental, autistic, oral
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by significant difficulties in language skills, social interaction and comprehension of abstract concepts. The cerebellum and limbic regions of brain exhibit structural and functional abnormalities, contributing to the wide array of systemic and behavioural symptoms associated with this condition. Dental professionals treating patients with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis must use a family-centered approach that takes into account the preferences and concerns of the particular medical needs, behaviours, and requirements of every patient. In the United States, one in 44 people receive an ASD diagnosis, commonly in childhood, compared to a global prevalence of about 1%. ASD affects boys four times more frequently than it does girls. Genetics may be involved in the aetiology of ASD. The risk of ASD may also be increased by environmental variables like oxidative stress, older parental age at time of conception, mitochondrial malfunction as well as exogenous factors like maternal exposure to alcohol and smoke. Maternal stress may be a factor in the rise in ASD symptoms. The dental care of a child with autism necessitates a thorough knowledge of the autism's history and the theories of behavioural guiding that are now in use. The dental expert should be adaptable enough to change the treatment strategy accordingly.
References
1. Shi B, Wu W, Dai M, Zeng J, Luo J, Cai L, Wan B, Jing J. Cognitive, Language, and Behavioral Outcomes in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Exposed to Early Comprehensive Treatment Models: A Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12.
2. Zeidan J, Fombonne E, Scorah J, Ibrahim A, Durkin MS, Saxena S, Yusuf A, Shih A, Elsabbagh M. Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update. Autism Res. 2022 May;15(5):778-790. doi: 10.1002/aur.2696. Epub 2022 Mar 3. PMID: 35238171; PMCID: PMC9310578.
3. Srivastava M, Srivastava P, Dubey AK, Srivastava P. A Narrative Review of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Indian Context. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2024;19(4):336-343. doi:10.1177/09731342231223589
4. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2022 [cited 2025 April 4]. Available from: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/disability/disability-ageing-and-carers-australia-summary-findings/latest-release.
5. Jones J, Roberts E, Cockrell D, Higgins D, Sharma D. Barriers to Oral Health Care for Autistic Individuals-A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024 Jan 2;12(1):103. doi: 10.3390/healthcare12010103. PMID: 38201009; PMCID: PMC10779209.
6. Al-Qahtani SM, Razak PA, Khan SD. Knowledge and Practice of Preventive Measures for Oral Health Care among Male Intermediate Schoolchildren in Abha, Saudi Arabia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Jan 21;17(3):703. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17030703. PMID: 31973187; PMCID: PMC7038016.
7. Silveira ALNMES, Magno MB, Soares TRC. The relationship between special needs and dental trauma. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dent Traumatol. 2020 Jun;36(3):218-236. doi: 10.1111/edt.12527. Epub 2019 Dec 4. PMID: 31724811.
8. Vishnu Rekha C, Arangannal P, Shahed H. Oral health status of children with autistic disorder in Chennai. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent. 2012;13:126–31.
9. Jaber MA. Dental caries experience, oral health status and treatment needs of dental patients with autism. J Appl Oral Sci. 2011;19(3):212-7.
10. Shapira J, Mann J, Tamari I, Mester R, Knobler H, Yoeli Y, Newbrun E. Oral health status and dental needs of an autistic population of children and young adults. Spec Care Dentist. 1989;9(2):38-41
11. Loo CY, Graham RM, Hughes CV. Behaviour guidance in dental treatment of patients with autism spectrum disorder. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2009;19(6):390-8
12. Rai K, Hegde AM, Jose N. Salivary antioxidants and oral health in children with autism. Arch Oral Biol. 2012;57(8):1116-20.
13. DeMattei R, Cuvo A, Maurizio S. Oral assessment of children with an autism spectrum disorder. J Dent Hyg. 2007;81(3):65-68.
14. da Silva SN, Gimenez T, Souza RC, Mello-Moura ACV, Raggio DP, Morimoto S, Lara JS, Soares GC, Tedesco TK. Oral health status of children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2017 Sep;27(5):388-398. doi: 10.1111/ipd.12274. Epub 2016 Oct 31. PMID: 27796062.
15. Marshall J, Sheller B, Mancl L. Caries-risk assessment and caries status of children with autism. Pediatr Dent. 2010 Jan-Feb;32(1):69-75. PMID: 20298657.
16. Luppanapornlarp S, Leelataweewud P, Putongkam P, Ketanont S. Periodontal status and orthodontic treatment need of autistic children. World J Orthod. 2010;11(3):256-61.
17. Marra PM, Parascandolo S, Fiorillo L, Cicciù M, Cervino G, D'Amico C, De Stefano R, Salerno P, Esposito U, Itro A. Dental Trauma in Children with Autistic Disorder: A Retrospective Study. Biomed Res Int. 2021 Sep 8;2021:3125251. doi: 10.1155/2021/3125251. PMID: 34540992; PMCID: PMC8445712.
18. Al-Sehaibany FS. Occurrence of traumatic dental injuries among preschool children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pak J Med Sci. 2018 Jul-Aug;34(4):859-863. doi: 10.12669/pjms.344.15681. PMID: 30190742; PMCID: PMC6115560.
19. Orellana LM, Silvestre FJ, Martínez-Sanchis S, Martínez-Mihi V, Bautista D. Oral manifestations in a group of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012 May 1;17(3):e415-9. doi: 10.4317/medoral.17573. PMID: 22143726; PMCID: PMC3476085.
20. Al-Sehaibany, Fares. (2018). Occurrence of traumatic dental injuries among preschool children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 34. 10.12669/pjms.344.15681.
21. Andonovski ME, Antonarakis GS. Autism spectrum disorder and dentoalveolar trauma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2022 Nov;123(6):e858-e864. doi: 10.1016/j.jormas.2022.06.026. Epub 2022 Jun 28. PMID: 35777731.
22. da Costa, Izabela et al. “Increased Risk of Dentoalveolar Trauma in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.” International journal of environmental research and public health vol. 21,12 1563. 26 Nov. 2024, doi:10.3390/ijerph21121563
23. Andrade, N. S., Dutra, T. T. B., Fernandes, R. F., Moita Neto, J. M., Mendes, R. F., & Prado Júnior, R. R. (2016). Retrospective study of dental trauma in children with autism spectrum disorders: a paired study. Special Care in Dentistry, 36(5), 260–264. doi:10.1111/scd.12180
24. Devi K P, Tewari N, O'Connell A, et al. Risk factors associated with traumatic dental injuries in individuals with special healthcare needs-A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dent Traumatol. 2024;40(1):91-110. doi:10.1111/edt.12882
25. Sami, W., Ahmad, M. S., Shaik, R. A., Miraj, M., Ahmad, S., & Molla, M. H. (2023). Oral Health Statuses of Children and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Umbrella Review. Journal of clinical medicine, 13(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13010059
26. Minshawi, N. F., Hurwitz, S., Fodstad, J. C., Biebl, S., Morriss, D. H., & McDougle, C. J. (2014). The association between self-injurious behaviors and autism spectrum disorders. Psychology research and behavior management, 7, 125–136. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S44635
27. Lai, M. C., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet (London, England), 383(9920), 896–910. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61539-1
28. Petti, S. (2019), Textbook and Color Atlas of Traumatic Dental Injuries to the Teeth Edited by JO Andreasen FM Andreasen L Andersson. Wiley-Blackwell, 5th Edition, December 2018, 1064 Pages. . Oral Dis, 25: 1234-1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.13079
29. Orfali, S.M., Alrusayes, A.A., & Aldossary, M.S. (2020). Oral Health-Related Quality of Life in Children: Assessment Tools at a Glance.
30. Qiao, Y., Shi, H., Wang, H., Wang, M., & Chen, F. (2020). Oral Health Status of Chinese Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 398. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00398
31. Orellana LM, Silvestre FJ, Martínez-Sanchis S, Martínez-Mihi V, Bautista D. Oral manifestations in a group of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012;17(3):415-9
32. Delli K, Reichart PA, Bornstein MM, Livas C. Management of children with autism spectrum disorder in the dental setting: concerns, behavioural approaches and recommendations. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18(6):862-8.
33. Lai B, Milano M, Roberts MW, Hooper SR. Unmet dental needs and barriers to dental care among children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(7):1294-303.
34. Nelson LP, Getzin A, Graham D, Zhou J, Wagle EM, McQuiston J, McLaughlin S, Govind A, Sadof M, Huntington NL. Unmet dental needs and barriers to care for children with significant special health care needs. Pediatr Dent. 2011;33(1):29-36
35. Bäckman B, Pilebro C. Visual pedagogy in dentistry for children with autism. ASDC J Dent Child. 1999;66(5):325-31.
36. Pilebro C, Bäckman B. Teaching oral hygiene to children with autism. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2005;15(1):1-9.
37. Lovaas OI. Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(1):3-9.
38. Esposito M, Piersanti C, Fadda R, Boitani M, Mazza M, Marrocco G. Oral Hygiene in Children with Autism: Teaching Self-Toothbrushing via Behavioural Intervention Including Parents. Children. 2025; 12(1):5. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12010005
39. Tomchek SD, Dunn W. Sensory processing in children with and without autism: a comparative study using the short sensory profile. Am J Occup Ther. 2007;61(2):190-200.
40. Loo CY, Graham RM, Hughes CV. The caries experience and behavior of dental patients with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139(11):1518-24
41. Friedlander AH, Yagiela JA, Paterno VI, Mahler ME. The neuropathology, medical management and dental implications of autism. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006;137(11):1517-27.
42. Karande S. Autism: A review for family physicians. Indian J Med Sci. 2006;60(5):205-15.
43. Rimland B, Baker SM. Brief report: alternative approaches to the development of effective treatments for autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1996;26(2):237-41.
44. Xue Ming, Brimacombe M, Chaaban J, Zimmerman-Bier B, Wagner GC. Autism spectrum disorders: concurrent clinical disorders. J Child Neurol. 2008;23(1):6-13.
45. Burgette JM, Rezaie A. Association between Autism Spectrum Disorder and Caregiver-Reported Dental Caries in Children. JDR Clin Trans Res. 2020;5(3):254-261.
46. Marshall J, Sheller B, Mancl L. Caries-risk assessment and caries status of children with autism. Pediatr Dent. 2010;32(1):69-75.
47. Raposa KA. Behavioral management for patients with intellectual and developmental disorders. Dent Clin North Am. 2009 ;53(2):359-73.
48. Kamen S, Skier J. Dental management of the autistic child. Spec Care Dentist. 1985;5(1):20-3.
49. Swallow JN. The dental management of autistic children. Br Dent J. 1969;126(3):128-31
50. Burkhart N. Understanding and managing the autistic child in the dental office. Dent Hyg (Chic). 1984;58(2):60-3.
51. Gandhi RP, Klein U. Autism spectrum disorders: an update on oral health management. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2014 Jun;14 Suppl:115-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.03.002. Epub 2014 Mar 27. PMID: 24929596.
52. Zerman N, Zotti F, Chirumbolo S, Zangani A, Mauro G, Zoccante L. Insights on dental care management and prevention in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). What is new? Front Oral Health. 2022 Sep 27;3:998831. doi: 10.3389/froh.2022.998831. PMID: 36238091; PMCID: PMC9551997
53. Carli E, Pasini M, Pardossi F, Capotosti I, Narzisi A, Lardani L. Oral Health Preventive Program in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Children (Basel). 2022 Apr 10;9(4):535. doi: 10.3390/children9040535. PMID: 35455579; PMCID: PMC9031336
2. Zeidan J, Fombonne E, Scorah J, Ibrahim A, Durkin MS, Saxena S, Yusuf A, Shih A, Elsabbagh M. Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update. Autism Res. 2022 May;15(5):778-790. doi: 10.1002/aur.2696. Epub 2022 Mar 3. PMID: 35238171; PMCID: PMC9310578.
3. Srivastava M, Srivastava P, Dubey AK, Srivastava P. A Narrative Review of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Indian Context. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2024;19(4):336-343. doi:10.1177/09731342231223589
4. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2022 [cited 2025 April 4]. Available from: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/disability/disability-ageing-and-carers-australia-summary-findings/latest-release.
5. Jones J, Roberts E, Cockrell D, Higgins D, Sharma D. Barriers to Oral Health Care for Autistic Individuals-A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024 Jan 2;12(1):103. doi: 10.3390/healthcare12010103. PMID: 38201009; PMCID: PMC10779209.
6. Al-Qahtani SM, Razak PA, Khan SD. Knowledge and Practice of Preventive Measures for Oral Health Care among Male Intermediate Schoolchildren in Abha, Saudi Arabia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Jan 21;17(3):703. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17030703. PMID: 31973187; PMCID: PMC7038016.
7. Silveira ALNMES, Magno MB, Soares TRC. The relationship between special needs and dental trauma. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dent Traumatol. 2020 Jun;36(3):218-236. doi: 10.1111/edt.12527. Epub 2019 Dec 4. PMID: 31724811.
8. Vishnu Rekha C, Arangannal P, Shahed H. Oral health status of children with autistic disorder in Chennai. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent. 2012;13:126–31.
9. Jaber MA. Dental caries experience, oral health status and treatment needs of dental patients with autism. J Appl Oral Sci. 2011;19(3):212-7.
10. Shapira J, Mann J, Tamari I, Mester R, Knobler H, Yoeli Y, Newbrun E. Oral health status and dental needs of an autistic population of children and young adults. Spec Care Dentist. 1989;9(2):38-41
11. Loo CY, Graham RM, Hughes CV. Behaviour guidance in dental treatment of patients with autism spectrum disorder. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2009;19(6):390-8
12. Rai K, Hegde AM, Jose N. Salivary antioxidants and oral health in children with autism. Arch Oral Biol. 2012;57(8):1116-20.
13. DeMattei R, Cuvo A, Maurizio S. Oral assessment of children with an autism spectrum disorder. J Dent Hyg. 2007;81(3):65-68.
14. da Silva SN, Gimenez T, Souza RC, Mello-Moura ACV, Raggio DP, Morimoto S, Lara JS, Soares GC, Tedesco TK. Oral health status of children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2017 Sep;27(5):388-398. doi: 10.1111/ipd.12274. Epub 2016 Oct 31. PMID: 27796062.
15. Marshall J, Sheller B, Mancl L. Caries-risk assessment and caries status of children with autism. Pediatr Dent. 2010 Jan-Feb;32(1):69-75. PMID: 20298657.
16. Luppanapornlarp S, Leelataweewud P, Putongkam P, Ketanont S. Periodontal status and orthodontic treatment need of autistic children. World J Orthod. 2010;11(3):256-61.
17. Marra PM, Parascandolo S, Fiorillo L, Cicciù M, Cervino G, D'Amico C, De Stefano R, Salerno P, Esposito U, Itro A. Dental Trauma in Children with Autistic Disorder: A Retrospective Study. Biomed Res Int. 2021 Sep 8;2021:3125251. doi: 10.1155/2021/3125251. PMID: 34540992; PMCID: PMC8445712.
18. Al-Sehaibany FS. Occurrence of traumatic dental injuries among preschool children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pak J Med Sci. 2018 Jul-Aug;34(4):859-863. doi: 10.12669/pjms.344.15681. PMID: 30190742; PMCID: PMC6115560.
19. Orellana LM, Silvestre FJ, Martínez-Sanchis S, Martínez-Mihi V, Bautista D. Oral manifestations in a group of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012 May 1;17(3):e415-9. doi: 10.4317/medoral.17573. PMID: 22143726; PMCID: PMC3476085.
20. Al-Sehaibany, Fares. (2018). Occurrence of traumatic dental injuries among preschool children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 34. 10.12669/pjms.344.15681.
21. Andonovski ME, Antonarakis GS. Autism spectrum disorder and dentoalveolar trauma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2022 Nov;123(6):e858-e864. doi: 10.1016/j.jormas.2022.06.026. Epub 2022 Jun 28. PMID: 35777731.
22. da Costa, Izabela et al. “Increased Risk of Dentoalveolar Trauma in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.” International journal of environmental research and public health vol. 21,12 1563. 26 Nov. 2024, doi:10.3390/ijerph21121563
23. Andrade, N. S., Dutra, T. T. B., Fernandes, R. F., Moita Neto, J. M., Mendes, R. F., & Prado Júnior, R. R. (2016). Retrospective study of dental trauma in children with autism spectrum disorders: a paired study. Special Care in Dentistry, 36(5), 260–264. doi:10.1111/scd.12180
24. Devi K P, Tewari N, O'Connell A, et al. Risk factors associated with traumatic dental injuries in individuals with special healthcare needs-A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dent Traumatol. 2024;40(1):91-110. doi:10.1111/edt.12882
25. Sami, W., Ahmad, M. S., Shaik, R. A., Miraj, M., Ahmad, S., & Molla, M. H. (2023). Oral Health Statuses of Children and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Umbrella Review. Journal of clinical medicine, 13(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13010059
26. Minshawi, N. F., Hurwitz, S., Fodstad, J. C., Biebl, S., Morriss, D. H., & McDougle, C. J. (2014). The association between self-injurious behaviors and autism spectrum disorders. Psychology research and behavior management, 7, 125–136. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S44635
27. Lai, M. C., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet (London, England), 383(9920), 896–910. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61539-1
28. Petti, S. (2019), Textbook and Color Atlas of Traumatic Dental Injuries to the Teeth Edited by JO Andreasen FM Andreasen L Andersson. Wiley-Blackwell, 5th Edition, December 2018, 1064 Pages. . Oral Dis, 25: 1234-1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.13079
29. Orfali, S.M., Alrusayes, A.A., & Aldossary, M.S. (2020). Oral Health-Related Quality of Life in Children: Assessment Tools at a Glance.
30. Qiao, Y., Shi, H., Wang, H., Wang, M., & Chen, F. (2020). Oral Health Status of Chinese Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 398. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00398
31. Orellana LM, Silvestre FJ, Martínez-Sanchis S, Martínez-Mihi V, Bautista D. Oral manifestations in a group of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012;17(3):415-9
32. Delli K, Reichart PA, Bornstein MM, Livas C. Management of children with autism spectrum disorder in the dental setting: concerns, behavioural approaches and recommendations. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18(6):862-8.
33. Lai B, Milano M, Roberts MW, Hooper SR. Unmet dental needs and barriers to dental care among children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(7):1294-303.
34. Nelson LP, Getzin A, Graham D, Zhou J, Wagle EM, McQuiston J, McLaughlin S, Govind A, Sadof M, Huntington NL. Unmet dental needs and barriers to care for children with significant special health care needs. Pediatr Dent. 2011;33(1):29-36
35. Bäckman B, Pilebro C. Visual pedagogy in dentistry for children with autism. ASDC J Dent Child. 1999;66(5):325-31.
36. Pilebro C, Bäckman B. Teaching oral hygiene to children with autism. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2005;15(1):1-9.
37. Lovaas OI. Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(1):3-9.
38. Esposito M, Piersanti C, Fadda R, Boitani M, Mazza M, Marrocco G. Oral Hygiene in Children with Autism: Teaching Self-Toothbrushing via Behavioural Intervention Including Parents. Children. 2025; 12(1):5. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12010005
39. Tomchek SD, Dunn W. Sensory processing in children with and without autism: a comparative study using the short sensory profile. Am J Occup Ther. 2007;61(2):190-200.
40. Loo CY, Graham RM, Hughes CV. The caries experience and behavior of dental patients with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139(11):1518-24
41. Friedlander AH, Yagiela JA, Paterno VI, Mahler ME. The neuropathology, medical management and dental implications of autism. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006;137(11):1517-27.
42. Karande S. Autism: A review for family physicians. Indian J Med Sci. 2006;60(5):205-15.
43. Rimland B, Baker SM. Brief report: alternative approaches to the development of effective treatments for autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1996;26(2):237-41.
44. Xue Ming, Brimacombe M, Chaaban J, Zimmerman-Bier B, Wagner GC. Autism spectrum disorders: concurrent clinical disorders. J Child Neurol. 2008;23(1):6-13.
45. Burgette JM, Rezaie A. Association between Autism Spectrum Disorder and Caregiver-Reported Dental Caries in Children. JDR Clin Trans Res. 2020;5(3):254-261.
46. Marshall J, Sheller B, Mancl L. Caries-risk assessment and caries status of children with autism. Pediatr Dent. 2010;32(1):69-75.
47. Raposa KA. Behavioral management for patients with intellectual and developmental disorders. Dent Clin North Am. 2009 ;53(2):359-73.
48. Kamen S, Skier J. Dental management of the autistic child. Spec Care Dentist. 1985;5(1):20-3.
49. Swallow JN. The dental management of autistic children. Br Dent J. 1969;126(3):128-31
50. Burkhart N. Understanding and managing the autistic child in the dental office. Dent Hyg (Chic). 1984;58(2):60-3.
51. Gandhi RP, Klein U. Autism spectrum disorders: an update on oral health management. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2014 Jun;14 Suppl:115-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.03.002. Epub 2014 Mar 27. PMID: 24929596.
52. Zerman N, Zotti F, Chirumbolo S, Zangani A, Mauro G, Zoccante L. Insights on dental care management and prevention in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). What is new? Front Oral Health. 2022 Sep 27;3:998831. doi: 10.3389/froh.2022.998831. PMID: 36238091; PMCID: PMC9551997
53. Carli E, Pasini M, Pardossi F, Capotosti I, Narzisi A, Lardani L. Oral Health Preventive Program in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Children (Basel). 2022 Apr 10;9(4):535. doi: 10.3390/children9040535. PMID: 35455579; PMCID: PMC9031336
Published
2025-04-24
How to Cite
Rai, H., Mariam, S., Gupta, H., & Vaidya, S. (2025). Dental Care of Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder. UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF DENTAL SCIENCES, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.21276/ujds.2025.v11.i2.13
Section
Review Article
